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The expectation that science is a stable body of relatively objective knowledge on which the law can draw to settle legal controversies may seem benign. However, this expectation often corresponds to a romantic notion of the scientific enterprise and thereby eclipses not only the instabilities and controversies within science itself, but also the social and rhetorical aspects of even the best science. We see the idealization of science in law whenever there is a presumption that if two scientific experts disagree, one of them must be a "junk scientist". This presumption ignores the theoretical presuppositions and limitations of data that lead to genuine scientific disputes. We also see the idealization of science in law whenever we associate "bias, interest, and motivation" with unreliable expertise. This association missed the practical advances made by scientists who have strong theoretical biases, institutional interests, and financial motivations. Finally, we see the idealization of science in law whenever a legislator, administrator, or judge demands certainty from science, not recognizing its probabilistic nature and dynamic history. It is neither a critique of scientific progress nor an exaggeration to acknowledge scientific debates, the conventional aspects of scientific methodology, the importance of networking and "social capital" with respect to publications and grants, and the persuasive elements in scientific discourse. To think that these features are somehow markers of bad science is to idealize science.
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The primary purpose of the passage is to
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The author suggests that which of the following can lead to the dismissal of a scientific expert as a junk scientist?
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The author mentions "scientists who have strong theoretical biases, institutional interests, and financial motivations" primarily in order to
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Only since the Second World War has graphic design been categorized as a field worth knowing about and preserving, and most design collections have been narrowly defined. There are few extant archives of advertisements, some design collections include only political posters by established artists, other collections focus on such specific historical documents as election posters. Rigidly defined collections like these can foster pigeonholed concepts of design history. In contrast, Merrill Berman`s ambitious reach as a collector- one that includes avant-graphics, anonymous political posters, and commercial advertisements- preserves graphics in a wide range to show how graphic designs pervade a culture, not in isolation from on another but all mixed together part of the daily inundation of meanings and visual stimulation.
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Which of the following best describes the function of the highlight sentence
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Based on the passage, it can be inferred that Appalachian square dancing
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The author mentions "social dances " primarily to
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The passage is primarily concerned with
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The author mentions the findings of the "Hebrew scholars" mainly to
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The author suggests that Cole's inclusion of "distinctive markings" on the mountain in The Oxbow
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The author mentions which of the following as evidence of how Cole intended the markings on his painting to be read?
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The statements given are structured to lead to which of the following conclusions
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Which of this following, if true, would best support the plant permissive hypothesis?
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Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence in the context of the passage as a whole?
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Based on the passage, which of the following can be most plausibly inferred about "recent studies"?
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It can be inferred that the author of the passage would agree with which of the following statements about the "grand portrayal of American wilderness" in Cole's The Oxbow?
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In the context in which it appears, "indicated " most nearly means
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The passage mentions "artist Eliza Goodridge" primarily to
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Most of the studies of the effect of aging on short-term memory have led researchers to conclude that younger adults perform short-term-memory tasks better than people over the age of 65. But these studies were all conducted in afternoon sessions. In a recent study conducted both in morning and in afternoon sessions. the older participants performed much better in morning sessions than in afternoon sessions. The younger participants did not, however, perform any better in the morning.
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